Actualités. 01 juillet Cet été, percez les mystères du cerveau ; 16 juin Le sport, vecteur d’apprentissages ; 08 juin Gaël Faye, enfant de la Zique ; 28 mai Éducation, intelligence artificielle et numérique, une conférence du CSEN au forum IN-Fine ; 21 mai Dernière étape avant l’oral du bac: travailler sa posture Robert L. Heilbroner (March 24, – January 4, ) was an American economist and historian of economic blogger.com author of some 20 books, Heilbroner was best known for The Worldly Philosophers: The Lives, Times and Ideas of the Great Economic Thinkers (), a survey of the lives and contributions of famous economists, notably Adam Smith, Karl Marx, and John Maynard Keynes Donald Jasper Harris (born August 23, ) is a Jamaican-American economist and professor emeritus at Stanford University, known for applying post-Keynesian ideas to development economics. He is the ex-husband of Indian-American Biomedical Scientist Shyamala Gopalan, father of the 49th and Current Vice President of the United States, Kamala Harris and lawyer and political commentator Maya Harris
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Karl Popper was one of the most influential philosophers of science of the 20th century. He made significant contributions to debates concerning general scientific methodology and theory choice, the demarcation of science from non-science, the nature of probability and quantum mechanics, and the methodology of the social sciences. His work is notable for its wide influence both within the philosophy of science, within science itself, and within a broader social context.
When theories are falsified by such observations, scientists can respond by revising the theory, or by rejecting the theory in favor of a rival or by maintaining the theory as is and changing an auxiliary hypothesis, phd dissertation help karl marx. In either case, however, this process must aim at the production of new, falsifiable predictions. While Popper recognizes that scientists can and do hold onto theories in the face of failed predictions when there are no predictively superior rivals to turn to.
He holds that scientific practice is characterized by its continual effort to test theories against experience and make revisions based on the outcomes of these tests. By contrast, theories that are permanently immunized from falsification by the introduction of untestable ad hoc hypotheses can no longer be classified as scientific, phd dissertation help karl marx.
Among other things, Popper argues that his falsificationist proposal allows for a solution of the problem of induction, since inductive reasoning plays no role in his account of theory choice. Along with his general proposals regarding falsification and scientific methodology, Popper is notable for his work on probability phd dissertation help karl marx quantum mechanics and on the methodology of the social sciences.
Popper defends a propensity theory of probabilityaccording to which probabilities are interpreted as objective, mind-independent properties of experimental setups.
Popper then uses this theory to provide a realist interpretation of quantum mechanics, though its applicability goes beyond this phd dissertation help karl marx case. With respect to the social sciences, phd dissertation help karl marx, Popper argued against the historicist attempt to formulate universal laws covering the whole of human history and instead argued in favor of methodological individualism and situational logic.
Popper began his academic studies at the University of Vienna inand he focused on both mathematics and theoretical physics. Inhe received a PhD in Philosophy, phd dissertation help karl marx. His dissertation, On the Problem of Method in the Psychology of Thinkingdealt primarily with the psychology of thought and discovery. InPopper published Logik der Forschung The Phd dissertation help karl marx of Researchhis first major work in the philosophy of science.
Popper later translated the book into English and published it under the title The Logic of Scientific Discovery In the book, Popper offered his first detailed account of scientific methodology and of the importance of falsification.
His proposed solutions to the problems arising from these concerns, however, were significantly different from those favored by the Vienna Circle. Popper stayed in Vienna untilwhen he took a teaching position at Canterbury University College in Christchurch, New Zealand, and he stayed there throughout World War II.
His major works on the philosophy of science from this period include the articles that would eventually make up The Poverty of Historicism In these articles, he offered a highly critical analysis of the methodology of the social sciences, in particular, of attempts by social scientists to formulate predictive, phd dissertation help karl marx, explanatory laws.
InPopper took a teaching position at the London School of Economics, where he stayed until he retired in While there, he continued to work on a variety of issues relating to the philosophy of science, including quantum mechanics, phd dissertation help karl marx, entropy, evolution, and the realism vs. anti-realism debate, along with the issues already mentioned. He continued to publish until shortly before his death in In The Philosophy of Karl PopperPopper offers responses to many of his most important critics and provides clarifications of his mature views.
In particular, Popper aims to capture the logical or methodological differences between scientific disciplines, such as physics, and non-scientific disciplines, such as myth-making, philosophical metaphysics, Freudian psychoanalysis, and Marxist social criticism. According to this criterion, a statement is cognitively meaningful if and only if it is, in principle, possible to verify.
This criterion is intended to, among other things, capture the idea that the claims of empirical science are meaningful in a way that the claims of traditional philosophical metaphysics are not. For example, this criterion entails that claims about phd dissertation help karl marx locations of mid-sized objects are meaningful, since one can, in principle, verify them by going to the appropriate location.
By contrast, claims about the fundamental nature of causation are not meaningful. While Popper shares the belief that there is a qualitative difference between science and philosophical metaphysics, he rejects the verifiability criterion for several reasons. After all, the mere fact that one has failed to see a unicorn in a particular place does not establish that unicorns could not be observed in some other place.
These sorts of universal claims, though, are common within science, and certain observations like the observation of a black swan can clearly show them to be false. Finally, the verifiability criterion is by its own light not meaningful, since it cannot be verified.
Popper, however, argues that verification and confirmation played no role in formulating a satisfactory criterion of demarcation. Instead, Popper proposes that scientific theories are characterized by being bold in two related ways.
First, scientific theories regularly disagree with accepted views of the world based on common sense or previous theoretical commitments. To an uneducated observer, for example, it may seem obvious that Earth is stationary, while the sun moves rapidly around it.
However, Copernicus posited that Earth in fact revolved around the sun. As Popper notes, however, this sort of boldness is not unique to scientific theories, since most mythological and metaphysical theories also make bold, counterintuitive claims about the nature of reality. For example, the accounts of world creation provided by various religions would count as bold in this sense, but this does not mean that they thereby count as scientific theories.
With this in mind, he goes on argue that scientific theories are distinguished from non-scientific theories by a second sort of boldness: they make testable claims that future observations might reveal to be false. This boldness thus amounts to a willingness to take a risk of being wrong. Popper describes his proposal as follows:.
In other places, Popper calls attention to the fact that scientific theories are characterized by possessing potential falsifiers—that is, that they make claims about the world that might be discovered to be false. If these claims are, in fact, found to be false, then the theory as a whole is said to be falsified. Non-scientific theories, by contrast, do not have any such potential falsifiers—there is literally no possible observation that could serve to falsify these theories.
First, Popper does not hold that non-scientific claims are meaningless. Instead, he argues that such unfalsifiable claims can often serve important roles in both scientific and philosophical contexts, even if we are incapable of ascertaining their truth or falsity.
Second, while Popper is a realist who holds that scientific theories aim at the truth see Section 4he does not think that empirical evidence can ever provide us grounds for believing that a theory is either true or likely to be true. In this sense, Popper is a fallibilist who holds that while the particular unfalsified theory we have adopted might be true, we could never know this to be the case. Finally, where others see science progressing by confirming the truth of various particular claims, Popper describes science as progressing on an evolutionary model, with observations selecting against unfit theories by falsifying them.
We might roughly summarize the theories as follows:. GR allows this theory to be applied to cases where acceleration or gravity plays a role, phd dissertation help karl marx, specifically by treating gravity as a sort of distortion or bend in space-time created by massive objects.
Psychoanalysis: The theory of psychoanalysis holds that human behavior is driven at least in part by unconscious desires and motives. For example, Freud posited the existence of the idan unconscious part of the human psyche that aims toward gratifying instinctive desires, regardless of whether this is rational.
However, the desires of the id might be mediated or superseded in certain circumstances by its interaction with both the self-interested ego and the moral superego.
As we can see, both theories make bold, counter-intuitive claims about the fundamental nature of reality, phd dissertation help karl marx. Moreover, both theories can account for previously observed phenomena; for example, GR allows for an accurate description of the observed perihelion of Mercury, while psychoanalysis entails that it is possible for people to consistently act in ways that are against their own long-term best interest.
Finally, both of these theories enjoyed significant support among their academic peers when Popper was first writing about these issues. Popper argues, however, that GR is scientific while psychoanalysis is not, phd dissertation help karl marx. Importantly, the predictions of GR regarding the magnitude shift disagreed phd dissertation help karl marx the then-dominant theory of Newtonian mechanics.
Of necessity, at least one theory would be falsified by the experiment, which would provide strong reason for scientists to accept its unfalsified rival. The scientific status of GR, then, had nothing to do with neither 1 the truth of GR as a general theory of physics the theory was already known to false nor 2 the confirmation of GR by evidence one cannot confirm a false theory.
In contrast to such paradigmatically scientific theories as GR, Popper argues that non-scientific theories such as Freudian psychoanalysis do not make any predictions that might allow them to be falsified, phd dissertation help karl marx.
The reason for this is that these theories are compatible with every possible observation. Absent of these sorts of precise predictions, the theory can be made to fit with, and to provide a purported explanation of, any observed behavior whatsoever.
To illustrate this point, Popper offers the example of two men, one who pushes a child into the water with the intent of drowning it, and another who dives into the water in order to save the child. Popper notes that psychoanalysis can explain both of these seemingly contradictory actions. In the first case, the psychoanalyst can claim that the action was driven by a repressed component of the unconscious id and in the second case, phd dissertation help karl marx, that the action resulted from a successful sublimation of this exact same sort of desire by the ego and superego.
The point generalizes that regardless of how a person actually behaves, psychoanalysis can be used to explain the behavior. This, in turn, prevents us from formulating any crucial experiments that might serve to falsify psychoanalysis. Popper writes:. The point is very clear. Popper allows that there are often legitimate purposes for positing non-scientific theories, and he argues that theories which start out as non-scientific can later become scientific, as we determine methods for generating and testing specific phd dissertation help karl marx based on these theories.
For Popper, then, the demarcation between scientific and non-scientific theories is not grounded on the nature of entities posited by theories, by the truth or usefulness of theories, phd dissertation help karl marx, or even by the degree to which we are justified in believing in such theories.
Instead, falsification provides a methodological distinction based on the unique role that observation and evidence play in scientific practice. While Popper consistently defends a falsification-based solution to phd dissertation help karl marx problem of demarcation throughout his published work, his own explications of it include a number of qualifications to ensure a better fit with the realities of scientific practice.
It is in this context that Popper introduces several of his more notable contributions to the philosophy of science, including auxiliary versus ad hoc hypotheses, basic sentences, and degrees of verisimilitude.
One immediate objection to the simple proposal regarding falsification sketched in the previous section is based on the Duhem-Quine thesisphd dissertation help karl marx, according to which it is in many cases impossible to test scientific theories in isolation. For example, suppose that a group of investigators uses GR to deduce a prediction about the perihelion of Mercury, but then discovers that this prediction disagrees with their measurements.
This failure might lead them to conclude that GR is false; however, the failure of the prediction might also plausibly be blamed on the falsity of some other proposition that the scientists relied on to deduce the apparently falsifying prediction.
There are generally a large number of such propositions, concerning everything from the absence of human error to the accuracy of the scientific theories underlying the construction and application of the measuring equipment, phd dissertation help karl marx. Popper recognizes that scientists routinely attribute the failure of experiments to factors such as this, and further grants that there is in many cases nothing objectionable about their doing so.
In particular, phd dissertation help karl marx, Popper argues that a scientific theory can be legitimately saved from falsification by the introduction of an auxiliary hypothesis that allows for the generation phd dissertation help karl marx new, falsifiable predictions. Popper offers an example taken from the early 19th century, when astronomers noticed that the orbit of Uranus deviated significantly from what Newtonian mechanics seemed to predict. Instead, they considered the auxiliary hypothesis that there existed an additional and so far unobserved planet that was influencing the orbit of Uranus, phd dissertation help karl marx.
They then used this auxiliary hypothesis, together with equations of Newtonian mechanics, to predict phd dissertation help karl marx this planet must be located. Their predictions turned out to be successful, and Neptune was discovered in Popper contrasts this legitimate, scientific method of theory revision with the illegitimate, non-scientific use of ad hoc hypotheses to rescue theories from falsification.
Here, an ad hoc hypothesis is one that does not allow for the generation of new, falsifiable predictions. Popper gives the example of Marxism, which he phd dissertation help karl marx had originally made definite predictions about the evolution of society: the capitalist, free-market system would self-destruct and be replaced by joint ownership of the means of production, and this would happen first in the most phd dissertation help karl marx developed economies.
By the time Popper was writing in the midth century, however, it seemed clear to him that these predictions were false: free market economies had not self-destructed, and the first communist revolutions happened in relatively undeveloped economies, phd dissertation help karl marx. The proponents of Marxism, however, neither abandoned the theory as falsified nor introduced any new, falsifiable auxiliary hypotheses that might account for the failed predictions.
Instead, they adopted ad hoc hypotheses that immunized Marxism against any potentially falsifying observations whatsoever. For example, the continued persistence of capitalism might be blamed on the action of counter-revolutionaries but without providing an account of which specific actions these were, or what specific new predictions about society we should expect instead.
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